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Generalities on the Asteraceae family and Tithonia diversifolia. As part of the global flora, Asteraceae family is recognized by its abundance of species, which are calculated in 23,600 (between 24,000 and 30,000) and 1,690 genera, according to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in England (2022). They represent between 8 and 10 % of the world flora. They are grass, shrubs, and trees spread around the world, except in Antarctica (Global Compositae Database 2022).
Around forty species have direct importance in human feeding such as vegetables (lettuce and artichokes) and oily seeds (sunflower). Through industrial processes, numerous products are extracted from hundreds of species of this family, which are used in pharmaceuticals and other economic sectors (Del Vitto and Pettenati 2009).
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray is known in Spanish by several common names such as botón de oro, árnica de la tierra, falso girasol, acahual, jagureté po, quil amargo, among many others. According to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in England (2022), it is a native plant in Arizona (United States), Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Central Mexico, the Gulf of Mexico, northeastern, northwestern, southeastern and southwestern Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama. Currently, it is cultivated or grows naturally in numerous countries in certain continents.
It is a perennial shrub that belongs to the Helianthae genetic group, the Asteraceae family, and has numerous medicinal attributes according to several ethnical groups and popular cultures of Mexico, Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, South America, Asia and Africa (Chagas et al. 2012). In agriculture, it has been studied, and its crops are used as green manure, attractive to beneficial entomofauna, and as strategic component of agroforestry (Calle and Murgueitio 2008). In the field of ecological renewal, it is outstanding for the recovery of degraded soils and for renewing severe eroded soils such as landslides and badlands (Calle and Carvajal 2012).
Tithonia diversifolia, a special forage plant. Although its traditional use in medicine and apiculture is quite old, the forage attributes of this plant have been known for more than three decades in the feeding of numerous species of domestic animals (Navarro and Rodríguez 1990 and Ríos 1998). Since then, research and application in livestock productive systems grow incessantly, primarily in Latin America and the Caribbean (Ruiz et al. 2014, Murgueitio et al. 2015 and Mahecha et al. 2022).
As Asteraceae forage plant, Tithonia diversifolia has features that differentiate it from other plants of this family that are used in cattle systems or in the feeding of smaller animals. Thus, it is a shrub, not a tree as it is the case of Montanoa quadrangularis, which can be used in ecological renewal in the Andes, agroforestry (Calle and Murgueitio 2010), and feeding of domestic animals (Boada et al. 2017). It is not a weed of small size as most of the Asteraceae, and it is perennial unlike “palocote” (Tithonia tubiformis), which is annual (Rzedowski and Rzedowski 2005). Tithonia diversifolia does not produce edible tubers rich in inulin as “dalia” (Dhalia imperialis) (Ayala-Russi et al. 2015), “yacón” (Smallanthus sonchifolius) (Lopera-Marín 2020), “topinambur” or “alcachofa de Jerusalén” (Helianthus tuberosus) (Shariati et al. 2021). Nevertheless, it has the same domestication place as sunflower (Helianthus annus): Mexico (Bye et al. 2009). It produces seeds rich in distilled oil for human intake. However, the byproduct of the extraction (sunflower cake) is used in animal feeding.
Tithonia diversifolia shares with many plants of the Asteraceae family, the production of flowers rich in nectar and pollen, which turns it into a species demanded by bees (Araujo-Mondragón and Redonda-Martínez 2019). Moreover, it is closely related to a diverse entomofauna and it is beneficial to crops. Although there are few scientific papers published in this respect, for many decades, beekeepers and honey manufacturers have cultivated plants of Tithonia diversifolia to feed bees all year round through practices of cutting per stage that permit keeping flowers as months pass by. This is an indispensable attribute due to the native and agricultural floral supply is extremely seasonal (Cardozo 2013).
Due to its agricultural applications, one of the most outstanding traits of Tithonia diversifolia is its capacity of adapting to a wide range of climatic environments, agroecosystems and soil types, evidencing great regrowth ability and green biomass yield. Therefore, in recent years, research has been conducted to document its productive behavior in different agroecological contexts and to deepen into the genetic differentiation of geographic origins for genetic selection and improvement initiatives (Ruiz et al. 2014, Rivera et al. 2017, Rivera et al. 2018b, Santos-Gally and Boege et al. 2022 and Ziegler et al. 2022).
Despite its adaptability, in neo-tropical areas, and the use of this species in agroforestry and silvopastoral crops in which it tolerates a wide gradient of luminosity (Murgueitio et al. 2015 and Mahecha et al. 2022), it tends to do better (more production and survival time) under humid tropical agroecosystem conditions (rainfall between 1,000 and 3,000 mm per year, and average temperature higher than 20 degrees Celsius).
The growing interest of cattle farmers of all kinds in adopting silvopastoral systems with Tithonia diversifolia created a technological demand for spread methods because the most used method is agamic reproduction (cuttings). Establishing larger surfaces, the absence of artificial irrigation in most of the cattle areas, and the losses associated with the use of cuttings in changing climatic conditions are the main incentive for researchers to advance in recent years in studies of phenology dealing with details of floral biology and germination practices (Santos-Gally et al. 2019 and Rodríguez et al. 2019). Some studies have also focused on the effect of latency on germination (Santos-Gally et al. 2019), the determination of the seed harvest time (Padilla et al. 2018 and Padilla et al. 2020a), as well as the gamic seed production, quality and assessment of practices for their protection, and crop performance (Romero et al. 2014 and Padilla et al. 2020b), and even on research related to the germination capacity of gamic seeds of plants with different regional origin (Ruiz et al. 2018).
Another adaptation attribute recorded recently is the regrowth capacity of Tithonia diversifolia after frost, as well as its growth and biomass yield, with a range of light interception higher than those of many forage shrubs (González et al. 2017), which permits designing more complex agroforestry and silvopastoral systems with different components in prairies and in the higher tree stratum, and hence generating new opportunities of research including cattle management and behavior (Loto et al. 2021).
High contents of nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus combined with mid to high digestibility, and mid fiber and secondary metabolite contents have accounted for good productive performance of Tithonia diversifolia in beef and milk or in mutton productive systems (Osuga et al. 2012, Ribeiro et al. 2016 and Gallego-Castro et al. 2017), whether through cutting and transporting or through forage banks (Solarte et al. 2013) or through direct browsing (Loto et al. 2015 and Rivera et al. 2015). Variability in these quality indicators have even been studied for several origins or ecotypes (Rivera et al. 2018b). Moreover, foliage preservation methods are noteworthy such as dehydration and silage (Fasuyi et al. 2010), the latter being comparable to corn silage, with some advantages in highly-productive dairy cows (Angulo et al. 2022).
Scientific and empirical evidences are available about the use of foliage of this species (dry or fresh) for feeding other domesticated species such as laying hens or broilers (Rodríguez et al. 2018b by Gutiérrez-Castro and Hurtado-Nery 2019), pigs (Malavé 2021 and Scull et al. 2022), rabbits (Cano and Valencia 2018 and Cabrera et al. 2020), and Guinea pigs (Montero de la Cueva et al. 2019), where partial substitution (10-20 %) of concentrated feeds (feedstuffs) is necessary, bring about positive economic effects (Quiñones et al. 2022).
In scientific papers on climatic change and its mitigation through different mechanisms of reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) (methane, CH4; nitrous oxide, N2O; and carbon dioxide, CO2), advances have been made as to knowledge on interactions between populations of rumen microorganisms, fermentative processes, actions of some secondary metabolites, interactions with pasture, and other components of ruminant diets, being relevant some reduction in emissions of CH4, and N2O, attributable to presence of Thitonia diversifolia foliage (Molina et al. 2015, Rivera et al. 2018a, Galindo-Blanco et al. 2019, and Rivera and Chará 2021).
Conclusions First International Symposium on “Botón de Oro” (Tithonia diversifolia) (Hemsl.) Gray in Cattle Production Systems. In the Ninth International Silvopastoral Congress, held in the city of Manizales, in Colombia, the First International Symposium on “Botón de Oro” (Tithonia diversifolia) (Hemsl.) Gray in Cattle Production Systems was developed. Lectures and short papers were presented about various strategic topics, and there was ample discussion on research advances and challenges for the years ahead.
The principal conclusions of the symposium were the following:
Tithonia diversifolia is a species with outstanding potential for animal feeding, in acid soils and mid temperatures (17 a 27 ºC), and rainfall above 900 mm per year, having better performance in areas of short dry periods.
Thanks to complex ecological relations that favor the cycle of key elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus, Tithonia diversifolia can reduce up to 15 % the cost of fertilization in associated crops.
Tithonia diversifolia has an outstanding supply of nutrients (especially protein) to different species of domestic animals. Likewise, it has adaptative capacity that permits it to grow in diverse edaphoclimatic conditions (in equatorial regions starting from sea level up to 2,500 m above sea level).
Its forage biomass yield is considered high, between 20 and 41 t of DM/ha/year, and between 2 and 5 kg of green forage per plant every 50 days.
It is also noteworthy its high recovery capacity, after cutting and browsing, and its low demand of input for cultivation.
Its growth capacity under shade effect is moderate (< 40 %), but superior to other forage species.
In different agroecological conditions, Tithonia diversifolia is able of accumulating large nitrogen amounts in its green leaves and stems (crude protein values, near or superior to 20 %).
It has low content of ADF and NDF (20 and 40 %, respectively), acceptable values of non-structural carbohydrates (near 11 %), and adequate values of minerals such as Ca, P and K.
Dry matter (DM) degradability in Tithonia diversifolia forage surpasses 60 %, which is considered superior to that of many tropical pastures and forages.
In Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela, production and quality of cow milk and beef have been managed to be increased, thanks to the contribution of foliage of Tithonia diversifolia, as compared to diets based on tropical pastures.
Partial substitution of balanced feeds (based mainly on cereals and soybean) has been proven in dairy cows of mid- and high-production without affecting yield and efficiency in the system (up to 20 %).
Agroforestry in cattle systems (silvopastoral), where Tithonia diversifolia is tested and used the most, constitutes forage banks (pure or mixed) for cut and carry and direct browsing in intensive and non-intensive silvopastoral systems.
There is scientific evidence permitting to state that Tithonia diversifolia foliage, as component of tropical diets for cattle can diminish methane emissions, modify fatty acids profile of milk, and enhance nitrogen use throughout the feeding system.
In Cuba, the Institute of Animal Science managed to prove great morphological and genetic diversity in plant materials from Tithonia diversifolia that have better attributes of growth, palatability and functionality, whether for cut and carry or for browsing. These differences were also found in studies of molecular diversity in Colombia (CIPAV) and Mexico (Instituto Tecnológico de Tlajomulco in Jalisco), having expressions in the agronomic and nutritional characteristics.
In order to expedite cultivation of Tithonia diversifolia at larger scale, research breakthroughs are known as to its agamic spread (cuttings). In this instance, the parts that take root the most are half-lignified stems from the middle part of the branch. Besides, in Colombia, Cuba and Mexico, advances have been made by identifying procedures to produce gamic seeds (sexual), based on figuring out time for flower collection, plant origin, and processing after collection. The germination capacity in gamic seeds is highlighted in some plant materials under test, with values up to 73 %. It is shown that seeds should be harvested when the achene is green, without petals, or dry, with dark coloration, and there are high values in number and weight for full seeds and a thousand seeds.
Due to the above-mentioned, Tithonia diversifolia is regarded as a species of great interest for farmers, technicians, professionals, and researchers from several countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Between 2017 and 2022, work with Tithonia diversifolia in cattle systems continues quite active in Latin America and the Caribbean, regardless COVID 19 pandemic and socioeconomic crises related to its impact, and stronger manifestation of climatic change. Research, training, communication, rural extension, and technical assistance are multiplied in countries like Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic and Venezuela. During the eleventh International Silvopastoral Congress, held in Mexico in 2021, numerous research papers and successful experiences by farmers from various countries were presented (Rivera et al. 2021).
Conclusions
For more than three decades, Tithonia diversifolia forage attributes have been known. In recent years, scientific and technical knowledge has been consolidated permitting the feeding of numerous species of domestic animals.
Research on Tithonia diversifolia in cattle systems grows incessantly, especially in silvopastoral systems as part of numerous ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean. It is also studied in Africa and Asia.
Positive aspects and knowledge are sufficient to scale up to cattle landscapes and territories by using this species in urgent processes of climatic and socioeconomic resilience demanded in the fields.
