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Introduction
The active study of language contacts and related phenomena began in the second half of the 20th century, after the publication of Weinreich's pioneering work "Language Contacts". However, the first prerequisites for the formation of the theory of language contacts appeared already at the earliest stages of the development of the science of language. Today, the study of problems related to language contacts is so active that many domestic and foreign researchers (such as M. F. Kondakova, J. Bagan, E. V. Khapilina, H. Goebl, A. Racabli, R. Heydarov etc.) speak of the formation of a new linguistic discipline: contact linguistics.
Weinreich (1974) believed that "two or more languages are in contact if they are alternately used by the same person." He called the individual using these languages "a place of contact, and the practice of alternate use of two languages - bilingualism". In modern linguistic science, there are two approaches to understanding this phenomenon - the narrow and the wide approach. According to the narrow approach, an individual can be considered bilingual when the level of knowledge of the second language approaches the level of knowledge of the native. A broad approach allows for significant differences in the levels of language proficiency (Vishnevskaya, 1997, p. 14).
Rosenzweig (1972, p. 4) defines bilingualism as "possession of two languages and their alternate use depending on the conditions of verbal communication" and considers bilingualism "as a continuum extending from a very elementary knowledge of a contact language to complete and fluent command of it". On the other hand, Vereshchagin (1969, p. 134) understands bilingualism not as a phenomenon, but as a process. He defines bilingualism as a mental mechanism (considering knowledge, skills) that allows a person to reproduce and generate speech works that consistently belong to two language systems. Both of these approaches are reflected in the modern interpretation of bilingualism, where this term means, on the one hand, the ability to alternately use two languages, and on the other hand, the realisation of this ability, the practice of the alternate use of two languages (Azimov & Shchukin, 1999).
When talking about the reasons of language contacts, first of all, it is necessary to look at the historical development of languages and determine their role in the development of society. Since language does not exist outside society, the historical development of society is closely linked with the development of language. Speaking about the dependence of language development on the development of society, linguists point out that the development of language indirectly depends on the change of human society. For this reason, the historical development of society and its role in these relations should be noted in the interpretation of language contacts.
The main reasons for the emergence of language contacts are the processes of integration of peoples and languages against the background of intensification of relations between countries, the spread of globalization, the development of a global Internet, the expansion of distance education, and the overriding of other economic interests.
In recent years, the process of language contacts has covered more areas. Against the background of globalization of the world economy, the interest in the English language has changed radically in almost all nations and states. Now the vast majority are interested in English and consider it necessary to learn. On the other hand, learning foreign languages is one of the priorities of the education system of all countries. The rise of bilingualism and multilingualism is therefore a logical consequence of all this. Bilingualism is no longer spoken of as an individual, psychological state, but as a mass state. Taking the above into consideration, the study of bilingualism is of vital importance to understand the processes of language adaptation in its multiple contacts.
Development
Emergency of language contacts
In general, the two processes that have recently taken place on the world language map - the integration and differentiation of languages - are clearly evident. In the context of globalisation, all areas are becoming more in line with economic interests. An example of this is the tendency of the European Economic Union to become an increasingly political organisation, more of a confederate state. Many European countries agree to lose their borders and the single monetary system, which are the main attributes of the state, for their economic interests. This increases the likelihood that a single European culture, economy, state and even language will emerge. It can be assumed that Arabic, Turkic and Slavic speaking associations will be established in the future.
In Europe, these processes are simultaneous to opposite processes of differentiation. It is known that the national language has long been formed in almost all European countries. In many countries, the language problems of national minorities have been solved, and schools have been opened where education is provided in minority languages. Almost all of these national minorities have national and cultural autonomy, and have, within this autonomy, their own media. The federal structure of many European states allows all federal districts to pursue an independent language policy. Therefore, in addition to the state language, it is recommended that schools learn the language of one of the federal districts as a second language. Examples are Switzerland and Belgium. Although these states are not federal in terms of their constitutional structure, they are considered federal in terms of language policy (Zakiryanov, 1984, p. 38).
However, it should be noted that the language situation in these countries is different. In Switzerland, for example, Italian is not present in education and government, while French and German are dominant in both. Romansh is, for example, also a national language, but it is considered the language of national minorities. In Belgium, the opposite process is taking place. According to the use of languages, Belgium is divided into three areas: Flemish, French and a small German-speaking area. In other words, in Belgium, with the exception of Brussels, the principle of territoriality is used everywhere. Only Brussels is a common territory where personal rights are exercised. Here, each family speaks the language they want and sends their children to the school of their choice (Zakiryanov, 1984, p. 40).
In Canada, official English and French speaking areas are available. The dominant language in the education system of each province is the language of that province. However, each province gives a family that speaks another language the right to receive education in its own language.
Another reason for increased language contacts is the widespread migration in recent years. While the migration process has been always relevant in terms of linguistic impact, recent years has seen it intensifying. In order to find work, people move from economically underdeveloped countries to industrially developed countries. An example of this is the influx into European countries, the USA and Canada from different countries of the world. Such large migrations differ from domestic migrations in their nature. As is known, the United States of America was formed on the basis of the language and culture of English and Irish immigrants.
However, even though the English language and culture were already strengthened here, the migrants tried to preserve their language and culture. Even at the beginning of the 20th century there were German schools in the USA. During World War I, however, ideas were put forward on the closure of such schools in many states. Contrastingly, in 1968 and 1974, the United States adopted the Bilingual Education Act, which allocated special funds from the state budget. Such negative tendencies were prevented by this law (Siguan, 1990, p. 132). As can be seen, the educational and language problems of migrants are of particular importance in Europe and America. With the intensification of migration here, language contacts have also become more intensive. It is precisely these processes that distinguish the American version of English more and more from its predecessor.
The above facts give reason to conclude that relations between languages can occur for various reasons. Since the reasons for the formation of these relations are mostly connected with historical conditions, talking about these reasons, first of all, the historical events that caused them should be studied. Thus, the formation and intensification of inter-linguistic relations, initially, migration of peoples from one place to another, tribal and inter-tribal relations, later wars in different periods, trade relations, the emergence of the state and its language policy, education system, as well as distance education and mass media are connected with large scale. All these are important factors contributing to the formation of language contacts.
Typological classifications of bilingualism
One of the earliest typological classifications of bilingualism came from Shcherba (1974, p. 314) who defined pure bilingualism as the case where "two languages never meet: a member of two mutually exclusive groups never has the chance to use the two languages interspersed. Both languages are completely isolated from each other". Shcherba, (1974, p. 315) further defined mixed bilingualism as occuring when "two social groups cover each other to some extent, people constantly move from one language to another, and use one or the other language, without noticing what language they use in each given case". Now, for designations of these types of bilingualism, the terms coordinative and mixed bilingualism are used, respectively.
The rapidly developing intercultural and interethnic relations, the trend towards globalization, the widespread development of mass media have made bilingualism one of the most striking and widespread phenomena of modern reality. According to Vishnevskaya (2005, pp. 7-8) "the huge variety of languages in the world is no longer an obstacle to communication. The global spread of English as the language of international communication, the sharp increase in the number of bilinguals and multilinguals on the planet creates a unique situation of language interaction and it opens up new aspects of studying the modern language situation for linguists".
One of the most common forms of bilingualism today is the classification according to which bilingualism is divided into natural and artificial. The criteria for distinguishing these types of bilingualism is the condition of their occurrence. Natural bilingualism is formed "as a result of prolonged contact and interaction of speakers of two languages in the course of their joint practical activities, without a targeted impact on the development of this skill in a multilingual sphere", while artificial occurs "as a result of active and conscious influence on the formation of this skill far from the main mass of speakers of this foreign language" (Muratova, 1987, p. 172).
One of the most common types of artificial bilingualism is classroom or educational bilingualism, which occurs during the purposeful study of a foreign language in conditions specially created for this. There is also a typology in the methodological literature, where, depending on the following criteria, bilingualism is subdivided as follows:
Depending on the level of second language proficiency:
Depending on the frequency of using the second language:
Depending on the presence or absence of communication with native speakers of the second language:
Depending on the way of mastering the second language:
This typology is used within the framework of the methodological aspect of the study of bilingualism. However, bilingualism is a multifaceted phenomenon that occupies representatives of various sciences that are far from linguistics. In this regard, bilingualism is considered from a variety of points of view. The situation of bilingualism assumes that the individual speaks at least two languages: a native and a foreign language. In the process of generating or perceiving speech, language systems are superimposed on each other and sometimes changes occur in them at various levels. This phenomenon is called language interference. In this case, the influence of the native language causes the phenomenon of interference in bilingual speech. Then, based on the fact that for the occurrence of interference, the interaction of two or more language systems are necessary, we can draw the following conclusion: bilingualism is a prerequisite for the manifestation of interference.
Relation of Interference and other phenomena
According to Turaeva (2020) the concept of interference can be interpreted both in a broad sense (all structural changes in languages as a result of their contact), and in a narrow sense (transferring the norms of the native language into a foreign language in the process of communication during its study). Interference is always present in the form, as a rule, of an unconscious transfer by a bilingual of elements of one of their languages (native, for example) to the one in which he is currently speaking. Thus, two language systems collide, and for the addressee of the message this is perceived as unusual in this case, intonation, accent, incorrect ending or prefix, strange word order, or incomprehensible lexical collocation or metaphor.
The term "interference" was first introduced by members of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Shcherba (1974) became the first Russian linguist to describe the phenomenon of interference. In his article "On the issue of bilingualism" he speaks of "the mutual distortion of both languages, in practice, in the study of a foreign language, the distortion of this particular foreign language under the influence of the native". However, Shcherba does not use the term "interference", nor does he give a name to this phenomenon. In general, modern Russian scientist share the views of their predecessors: it is generally accepted to interpret interference as a result of the superposition of two language systems.
Here are some definitions of researchers’ views of interference:
Rosenzweig (1972, p. 4) understands interference as "violation by a bilingual of the rules for correlating contacting languages, which manifests itself in their speech as a deviation from the norm".
Dyachkov (1992, p. 86) understands interference as "violation of the norms of one language due to the intrusion into them of the norms of another".
Combining the presented approaches allows us to understand by interference the process of interaction between two languages, leading to changes in the structure of one of the languages, and the results of this interaction. A similar point of view is shared by Vinogradov. In his "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary", Vinogradov (1990, p. 685) gives the following definition of interference: “it is "the interaction of language systems in conditions of bilingualism, which develops either during language contact or with the individual assimilation of a non-native language", and deviations from the norm and system of a non-native language caused by the influence of the native, he considers "an expression of the process of interference".
It is necessary to separate interference in language from interference in speech. Interference in speech arises as a result of the communicant's personal acquaintance with the language, interference in the language - as something settled or fixed in use. Interference in the speech of the same person can manifest itself in various volumes depending on the situation of communication, while in language there are manifestations of interference that, due to repeated use in speech, have become habitual and integrated into the language system (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, pp. 62-63). Weinreich (1974) compared interference in speech with "sand carried away by the current", and interference in language with "sand settled on the bottom of a lake".
From the point of view of the source of interference, the following types of interference can be distinguished:
Interference from the native (dominant) language in the direction of a foreign one.
Secondary interference - interference from the foreign language that was studied first.
Intralingual, or mixed interference - the interaction of skills within the studied foreign language. Intra-linguistic interference is based on the fact that "new, first-time emerging skills in using the material and mechanisms of a foreign language are spontaneously compared in the mind of the speaker and deformed under the influence of previously formed skills" (Choibonova, 2009, p. 160). Interlinguistic interference usually manifests itself in rule generalization and overcorrection.
Reverse interference, or intercalation - interference (usually controlled) from a foreign language into a native one (Kuzmina, 2009, p. 228).
Interference is not always a direct interference of elements of one language into another, sometimes the consequence of interference is simply the impoverishment of the speech of a speaker in a foreign language. Most often this is due to the non-use of certain forms or constructions that are absent in his native language but are present in the target language. This type of interference is called implicit or indirect interference. Interference resulting in a violation of the system and norms of a non-native language is called explicit or direct (Kovylina, 1983, p. 5).
The result of linguistic interference is often a violation of mutual understanding between people in the process of their verbal communication, however, interference can cause not only negative, but positive effects. This interference is called positive transfer or transposition. It is due to the fact that during the generation or perception of a text in a non-native language, universal, general typological properties of languages are realized in the mind of the communicant, which do not have a negative impact on the final understanding. Positive transference can manifest itself at the following levels:
At the level of speech-cogitative activity: the more languages a person speaks, the more developed his speech-cogitative mechanisms are.
At the language level: similar linguistic phenomena are transferred to a foreign language and thereby facilitate its assimilation.
At the level of learning skills that the student has mastered in the study of their native and first foreign languages.
At the level of socio-cultural knowledge (especially when learning a second foreign language and the proximity of Western European cultures (Pavlova, 2009, p. 63).
The study of interference from the point of view of its communicative effect is extremely important: it allows you to anticipate errors and facilitate the task of correcting them. Therefore, one of the classifications of interference is the degree of understanding of bilingual speech (in the broad sense of the word) by a native speaker. From this point of view, the following types of interference are distinguished:
Interference that makes understanding difficult (in this case, understanding of the general speech intention of the speaker is preserved).
Interference that violates understanding (understanding and the general intention of the speaker are not equivalent).
Interference preventing understanding (complete misunderstanding) (Vishnevskaya, 1997, pp. 27-28).
Approaches to the study of interference
Today, the study of interference is conducted in a variety of aspects. Researchers distinguish four main aspects of its study: psychological, psycholinguistic, sociological, methodological and linguistic. The psychological aspect studies the influence of previously acquired skills when teaching another language; sociological - results of ethnic contacts; methodical - causes, sources of language errors in the speech of a speaker in a non-native language; while the linguistic aspect explores the processes and results of linguistic interaction (Vishnevskaya, 1997, p. 29). variety of aspects in which interference is studied is also determined by the fact that this phenomenon can be viewed from three different points of view:
as a result of the interaction of two or more systems (in linguistics and teaching methods of a non-native language)
as a process of this interaction (in psychology and psycholinguistics)
as prerequisites for this process (in sociolinguistics and linguistics).
Thus, the variety of aspects in which interference can be considered has led to the formation of several approaches within which this complex phenomenon is being studied.
The sociolinguistic approach to the study of interference is closely related to the theory of language contacts, as well as to the problems of contact and non-contact bilingualism. In Azerbaijan, interference and related phenomena have long been considered only in the context of the historically established contact Azerbaijan-national and national-Azerbaijan bilingualism. In the sociolinguistic aspect, interference is "a deviation from the pragmatic norms of a situation in which languages and forms of languages are strictly selected and used only in certain communities" (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, p. 67).
Such interference is directly related to the functions of the language and its social status in a multilingual society. Different features of a language may have a more or less powerful effect on language norms than others. The level of interference can be influenced by the social position not only of languages, but also of the people who use them (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, p. 68). Such interference is directly related to the functions of the language and its social status in a multilingual society. Different features of a language may have a more or less powerful effect on language norms than others. The degree of interference can be influenced by the social position not only of languages, but also of the people who use them (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, p. 68).
In psychology, interference is studied in the context of the transfer of skills, where this phenomenon is seen as the occurrence of obstacles and interference due to the transfer of skills and abilities from one activity to another or as the rooting of one habit under the pressure of another. By I. I. Kitros’ definition transference is "a complex phenomenon of the human psyche, the hidden mechanism of which allows a person to use in his mental and motor activity what he knows under completely new or relatively new circumstances" (cited according to (Pavlova, 2009, p. 62)).
Researchers dealing with the psychological side of language are interested in such problems as language ability, measurement of language skills, the impact of bilingualism on mental abilities, etc. Psychologists note that learning a new language is not an isolated process, it depends on the individual's previous linguistic experience.
In psycholinguistics, interference is considered as an integral part of the process of slow gradual penetration of one or another foreign language element into the system of the perceiving language in the process of mastering it. Interference is understood here as "a complex, unobservable psycholinguistic mechanism" that operates in a person's mind, regardless of his will and desire. It manifests itself in speech as a deviation from the norm of the native or non-native language, because the norms of these languages enter into complex relationships, trying to subjugate one another (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, p. 66).
The psycholinguistic approach to the study of interference also implies consideration of the causes of interference, the nature of the interference in the course of speech activity, the signs of interference and its communicative effect (Vishnevskaya, 1997, p. 27). The causes of interference are divided into psychological, psychophysiological, linguistic, sociocultural, methodological, etc.
The psycholinguistic approach to the study of interference is reflected in the classification of Weinreich (1974) who distinguishes the following types of interference:
on the basis of the presence or absence of differential features of one of the contacting languages in the other:
over-differentiation - a differentiated expression of those elements of the structure of a foreign language that are expressed in it in a unified way.
non-differentiation is a unified expression of those elements of a foreign language that are expressed in it differentially.
reinterpretation - replacement of a differential feature characteristic of a foreign language system with a differential feature characteristic of a system of another language.
according to the source of interference: interlingual, intralingual.
according to the form of manifestation: explicit, implicit.
in terms of strength and effectiveness: strong, moderate, weak.
by types of speech activity: in the perception and generation of speech (Vishnevskaya, 1997, pp. 26-27).
Thus, from a psycholinguistic point of view, the essence of the phenomenon of interference lies in the fact that when a person learns a foreign language, he unconsciously transfers to this language a system of existing rules and a program of speech behavior that exist in his native language. Proceeding from this, interference is defined as "a set of various features of the expression of a given meaning in two comparative systems that form a third, in which the laws of native and non-native languages apply" (Bagana & Hapilina, 2007, p. 48). The complexity of assimilation and consolidation of the totality of various features of this third system causes interference.
From a methodological point of view, interference can be defined as the involuntary assumption by students in speech in a non-native language of various inaccuracies from the point of view of the norm of the language being studied as a result of the negative influence of their native language. In this case, previously acquired speech skills and abilities do not contribute, but, on the contrary, hinder the formation of new speech skills and abilities in the target language.
However, errors in methodological literature are not always viewed as a negative phenomenon. Representatives of one of the areas of comparative linguistics "error analysis" interpret students' mistakes as evidence of the process of learning a foreign language. Mistakes are considered as signals that help to discover an individual-typical language acquisition strategy.
In the process of learning a non-native language, a so-called interlanguage (intermediate language) arises, in which the laws of both native and foreign languages apply. The existence of such a simplified system is an inevitable and natural part of the learning process, which reflects the level of competence of students at each stage of learning (Cook, 2016).
Burdenyuk and Grigorevsky (1978, p. 34) distinguish the following types of errors and causes of erroneous usages:
mechanical transfer of form without regard to content.
incorrect choice of an element based on the generality of the conceptual zone without taking into account the specifics of its semantics (interference itself).
lack of necessary links for the operation of the comparison mechanism.
false analogy.
association.
contrastive forecasting.
formal approach to element selection.
Thus, from the point of view of the methodological approach, interference is also considered as an integral part of the error mechanism.
The methodical approach also involves consideration of ways and means of overcoming interference. Interference can be overcome with the help of special exercises, the practice of real communication, and consciously - through the awareness of difficulties by the desire for unmistakable statements (Choibonova, 2009, p. 162).
Today, the study of interference is carried out mainly within the framework of the linguistic approach, since it is it that "opens the way for predicting possible cases of interference based on the analysis of potential interference fields of contacting languages and preliminary consideration of those factors or conditions that contribute to the appearance of the interfering influence of the native language"(Choibonova, 2009, p. 168).
Interference, considered in the linguistic aspect, is a phenomenon of the interaction of structures and structural elements of two languages. From this point of view, interference is defined as the process and result of linguistic interaction, expressed in deviations from the norm and system of the second language under the influence of the native. The actual linguistic causes of interference are complete or partial differences in the system of languages or language systems; therefore, interference can manifest itself in all elements of the structure of the language where there are structural differences. The study of interference within the framework of the linguistic aspect is carried out in relation to the language levels and language units. The fact that interference can manifest itself at different levels of the language system becomes the basis for distinguishing several of its types.
Conclusions
The article considered the main linguistic concepts related to the theory of interference, based on works of researchers such as Weinreich, Rosenzweig, Dyachkov, Alimov, Vishnevskaya, Bagana and others. Due to a necessary condition for the occurrence of interference is language contact, it was examined this concept in detail, as well as the concept of bilingualism, associated with it.
It was established that bilingualism is understood as both fluency in two languages at the same time, and relatively fluency in a second language, the ability to use it in certain areas of communication. The latter point of view is reflected in the works of such researchers as Haugen, Rosenzweig, Filin, Vishnevskaya and others.It was also considered the concepts of natural and artificial bilingualism and defined educational (classroom) bilingualism as one of the types of artificial.
The phenomenon of interference and the reasons for its occurrence were studied from different points of view: psychological, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, linguistic and methodological. From the point of view of psychology, the cause of interference lies in the unconscious transfer of skills, and from the point of view of linguistics, in systemic discrepancies between languages.
As part of the consideration of the theory of interference, it was analysed the opinions of domestic and foreign linguists regarding the allocation of various types of interference. Here we are faced with a wide variety of typologies, however, most linguists (Weinreich, Zhluktenko, Dyachkov, Bagana, etc.) distinguish several and different types of interference.
