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Introduction
In the current century, the primary objective of educational policiesis to improve quality. Authorities seek to use limited resources more efficiently to achieve the goals set by society for the education system. 1
Various research studies have identified self-regulated learning as one of the most predictive factors in terms of study effectiveness and achieving outstanding academic performance bystudents. 2,3) Self-regulated learning encompasses a range of cognitive and motivational processes, from organizing academic activities to persevering in the face of obstacles and adapting strategies to achieve satisfactory results. 2
In current higher education contexts, academic stress generated by harmful study habitsis increasingly common. 3From a neuropsychological perspective, it can be understood that academic stress impacts the cognitive and emotional performance of university students, resulting in adverse consequencesfortheiracademicachievement and mental well-being. 4
At the neurological level, potentially harmful contexts and situations activate stress responses in the body, involving a series of physiological and neurochemical changes. 5) These transformations can affect concentration, information retention, cognitive processing, and decision-making, posing obstacles to optimal learning. 3
In this context, self-regulated learning becomes a crucial variable for addressing academic stress. Self-regulated learning is related to the executive functioning of the brain, which in cludes skills such as self-reflection, emotional self-regulation, planning, and decision-making. 6
The implementation of a self-regulated learning training program based on a neuropsychological approach can be beneficial for university students by providing them with the necessary skills to manage academic stress and enhance their academic performance. By addressing self-regulated learning from a neuropsychological perspective, it is possible to consider the brain processes and neurobiological foundations involved in learning and stress regulation. As a result, more effective interventions can be developed that adapt to the specific needs of each student. This approach promotes optimal learning and better management of academic stress. Therefore, the aim of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of the self-regulated learning training strategy in reducing stress associated with the academic context.
Method
This study was based on a mixed research approach 7, which combines both quantitative and qualitative data with the aim of obtaining a more comprehensive and in-dept hunder standing of the phenomenon under study. By integrating these two types of data, a methodological advantage is achieved, allowing for a more holistic and enriching approach to the various dimensions of the phenomenon. 7
The mixed design used in this research involved two complementary stages. Firstly, the collection and analysis of quantitative data to examine objective and measurable aspects of the phenomenon, such as manifestations of academic stress, self-regulated learning, and observable behaviors. During the second stage, qualitative methods were used to explore students' subjective experiences, perceptions, and emotions related to academic stress, through interviews and focus groups.
This combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches allowed for data triangulation, meaning that the findings were supported and complemented by each other. This provides greater validity and reliability to the results, as a more complete and authentic picture of the studied phenomenon is obtained. 7
Sample description
The sample selection included all students belonging to the second-year group of a university program at Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Villa Clara, Cuba. Data regarding the university program and faculty in which the students are enrolled remained anonymous at the students' request and in respect for the protection of personal data and privacy. 8
The sample consisted of all participants who make up the target university group for the research. The eight participants have a mean age of 20.38 (range=19-21; SD=±1.06) and an average academic index of 4.44 (SD=±0.31), indicating that the group has a medium to high level of academic performance. A probabilistic sampling was employed as all participants from the group were included.
Selection of experts
The selection of experts plays a crucial role in this study, as their experience and knowledge in the area of study contribute to the validity and reliability of the results. The process of selecting the expert participants in this research is described below.
1. Selection criteria: specific criteria were established to identify the most suitable experts to participate in the study. These criteria were based on relevant experience and knowledge in the field of study. Aspects such as academic background, work experience, previous contributions in the research area, and recognition in the scientific community were considered. The selection criteria were defined clearly and transparently to ensure objectivity in the selection process.
2. Search and recruitment: to identify potential experts, an exhaustive search was conducted in academic data bases, professional records, and other relevant sources. Candidates were contacted through emails or personal communications, explaining the purpose of the study and the importance of their participation. The confidentiality of information and its exclusive use for research purposes were emphasized.
3. Informed consent: selected experts were provided with detailed information about the study, including its objectives, methodology, and any other relevant aspect. Their informed consent was requested to participate in the study, ensuring that they fully understood the requirements and implications of their participation.
4. Sample size: the sample size of experts was determined considering the diversity of perspectives and the representativeness of the field of study. A balance was struck between having a sufficient number of experts to obtain a wide range of opinions and limiting the sample to a manage able size to ensure the quality and comprehensiveness of the evaluations.
5. Confidentiality and anonymity: experts were assured of the confidentiality of their responses, and they were informed that their contributions would be treated anonymously. The collected data were used solely for research purposes, and necessary measures were taken to protect the participants' privacy and confidentiality.
The selection of experts was carried out rigorously and transparently, following the aforementioned steps. Finally, five experts were selected who provided their knowledge and expertise to evaluate and validate the proposed study, there by ensuring the quality and relevance of the obtained results.
It is important to note that the participation of the experts was voluntary, and their valuable contribution to the study was acknowledged. Their experience and knowledge in the field of study provided an enriching perspective that helped strengthen the validity and reliability of the results.
Stages of the program
It was structured in two diagnostic sessions with the aim of exploring the resources and practical self-regulated learning skills, as well as identifying the presence of stress associated with academic demands in students. This allowed for an initial approach to the educational and student context of the sample.
This approach allowed for the evaluation of levels of self-regulated learning and identification of the most affected dimensions. Subsequently, the existing levels of academic stress in the sample, its main manifestations, and associated protective factors were assessed.
Diagnostic techniques such as semi-structured interviews were used with the Head Teacher of the Year as a key informant to understand the group characteristics of the participants from the perspective of the teachers. Additionally, the variables of interest were evaluated using the Self-Regulated Learning Scale in University Students 9 and the SISCO Inventory of Academic Stress. 10
Theadministrationofbothsurveyswasaccompaniedby a groupdiscussionaddressingaspectsrelatedtoexperiences in theuniversitycontext, mostfrequentstudystrategies, interpersonal relationships, and perceptionoftheacademiccurriculum. Theresultsobtained in thediagnosticprocesslaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofthe training program.
The training strategy consisted of 5 one-hour working sessions, with the main purpose of strengthening self-regulated learning as a factor affected by academic stress from a neuropsychological perspective. A detailed description of the objectives for each session is provided in Figure 1.
The focus of the work was to promote understanding of the importance of proper self-regulated learning to achieve efficient academic performance. To accomplish this, it was necessary to develop knowledge and practical skills in students, aiming to empower them to effectively self-regulate their learning process and adopt a conscious and voluntary attitude to wards studying. Additionally, efforts were made to strengthen adaptive coping strategies for stressful situations, especially in the academic domain.
Throughout the process, the acquisition and strengthening of protective elements for mental health were emphasized. Furthermore, training in coping strategies from a neuropsychological perspective was provided to achieve regulation in psychophysiological activation responses to stress.
To evaluate the results, a working session was conducted with the group, with the objective of presenting the findings obtained during the program and gathering feedback from the group regarding those results. For this purpose, a situation involving self-regulated learning strategies and stress coping mechanisms was proposed, and the participants were asked to comment on how they would have approached it before and after receiving the content covered in the program. In a second phase, an infographic summarizing the main topics addressed throughout the process was presented, followed by participants offering their considerations regarding the topics discussed and how they felt before, during, and after the intervention.
General procedures
Participants were informed about the voluntary nature of their participation and the lack of negative consequences in case of withdrawal. An onymity of responses and confidentiality of results were guaranteed. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. All procedures adhered to the ethical principles established in the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its comparable standards. For the analysis of quantitative information, SPSS software v.25.0 was used, conducting descriptive analyses of the variables. Qualitative information was processed through content analysis.
Results
The diagnostic analysis reveals considerable levels of academic stress in the students, which manifest physically, psychologically, and behaviorally, negatively impacting self-regulated learning, particularly in study disposition. This generates feeling sofdispleasure among students, low academic performance, and an inability to implement adaptive stress management and learning regulation strategies due to their lack of knowledge about these phenomena and their consequences.
The Self-Regulated Learning Scale reflects that study disposition isusually observed in the majority (33.3 %) and self-efficacy for study disposition is also usually reported (32.8 %). Performance in studying, in terms of monitoring and cognitive strategies, mostly occurs always (30.8 %), and seeking help also happens consistently (31.3 %). Causal attributions for failure, considering external factors, mostly do not occur (37.5 %), while attributions to internal factors range from never (22.5 %) to regularly (22.5 %). Lastly, the self-assessment of study planning and learning occurs almost always (39.8 %).
The Academic Stress Inventory yielded results indicating that 87.5 % of the sample has experienced moments of worry or nervousness during the course of this semester. Participants' worry or nervousness during the semester occurred sometimes (37.5 %) and regularly (37.5 %).
Regarding the frequency of academic environment demands as stressors, the following stand out: over load of tasks and school work (62.5 %; almost always), evaluations by teachers (37.5 %; always), not under standing the topics covered in class (62.5 %; sometimes), and limited time to complete work (62.2 %; sometimes). The majority of coping strategies used by the participants are assertive skills (50.0 %; sometimes), and it is worth noting that most participants do not use psychotropic medications (87.5 %).
The most frequent physical reactions to stressful stimuli are sleep disorders (50.0 %; sometimes) and chronic fatigue (50.0 %; sometimes). The most common psychological reactions include conflicts or a tendency to argue (50.0 %; rarely), lack of enthusiasm for school tasks (25.0 %; always), and increased or decreased food consumption (62.5 %; sometimes).
The program design was evaluated by specialists based on pre-established criteria (Fig. 2). The ratings and criteria provided revealed that the consulted experts consider the intervention proposal to be highly sufficient. All analysis criteria scored between 4.5/5 and 5/5. According to their opinion, the objectives established in the sessions and the systemofactivities enable the achievement of the program's overall goal, and the order in which the workshops are conducted facilitates the progressive fulfillment of these objectives.
In the first session, cards with concepts about academic stress and self-regulated learning were used. There were difficulties in matching the concepts, but they were successfully synthesized through joint elaboration. Coping strategies such as experiential avoidance, physical exercise, and talking to friends were high lighted. In terms of study strategies, a superficial and rote approach was observed, with excessive use of repetition and summarization. The main difficulties were the lack of adaptive coping strategies and poor learning approaches. The students mentioned stress due to upcoming exams and difficulty in studying and concentrating. Emphasizing the importance of learning planning was proposed for the next session. In conclusion, the students appreciated the interesting dynamics but expressed a desire for fewer tasks to reduce stress.
The second session emphasized the need to plan study and the learning process to reduce the biopsychosocial manifestations of academic stress. A video debate on study strategies and planning was conducted, where the students showed interest in implementing new techniques such as organization and the use of positive reinforcements. The retrospective look technique was applied to consolidate the acquired knowledge, and it was suggested to delve into individual learning strategies in future sessions. Overall, a favorable working environment was observed, with committed and interested students in the content and the intervention as a whole.
During the third session, knowledge about planning and evaluating the learning process was complemented with personalized study strategies. The efficient reading technique was applied to offer different study strategies, allowing each student to choose the one that best suited their individual characteristics. Significant verbalizations showed the students' interest in trying new learning methods, such as studying in the morning or studying with a partner they enjoy listening to. The students rated the level of acquired learning as 4/5 and expressed a high level of satisfaction with the session (5/5).
The fourth session aimed to develop adaptive coping strategies for academic and social stress in the students. The living story technique was used to explore the predominant coping styles among the participants. The story focused on a university student facing problems due to an authoritarian teaching style of a professor, which caused her stress. The identified strategies were support from loved ones, experiential avoidance, and considering a career change. The lack of adaptive coping resources in the students was evident. The thematic content technique was used to represent stressful situations and develop joint strategies. Assertive communication strategies were offered, and work was done to acquire adaptive coping methods. The students evaluated the experience as satisfactory and committed to facing their stressful situation adaptively with the help of the Head YearTeacher.
The fifth session focused on developing emotional intelligence in the students as a protective factor against academic stress. A brain storming activity was conducted to consolidate knowledge about emotional intelligence, and a collective synthesis was created. The components of attention, clarity, and emotional regulation were identified. An instructional video was presented, and a discussion on the importance of emotional intelligence was promoted. The opinions were positive, high lighting its role in becoming better individuals, expressing oneself withouth arming others, and its relationship with academic stress. The involvement of emotional intelligence in learning was valued, and the importance of empathetic and Dynamic teachers was emphasized. Its protective role was highlighted, and the lack of courses or workshops to teach emotional intelligence to teachers and students was mentioned as a negative aspect.
Throughout the sessions, it was observed that the students were able to develop efficient study skills in a planned and tailored manner tot heir individual characteristics. These skills were characterized by conscious and voluntary motivation to deeply understand the received information due to its importance for their future professional performance. Regarding coping strategies for academic stress, it was found that the students acquired and applied these strategies. However, the students emphasized that academic stress is not solely dependent on their own maladaptive coping methods but also on the teaching styles of their professors and the pedagogical decisions made, which sometimes do not align with their interests or are not perceived as favorable and beneficial by them. Although the PPA acknowledges this situation, it consider sit necessary to respect the teaching styles of the faculty and the particularities of the curriculum.
Discussion
This self-regulated learning training program from a neuropsychological approach to academic stress in university students contributes to the existing body of knowledge on the subject. By contrasting the results with other related research, some important similarities and differences can be highlighted.
Firstly, several previous studies have found a high prevalence of academic stress in university students. 3,11) This coincidence is reinforced by the results obtained in this research, where physical, psychological, and behavioral manifestations of academic stress were observed in the participating students.
Previous research has consistently demonstrated that high levels of academic stress can hurt student performance. 12,13 In this study, a relationship between academic stress and self-regulated learning was found, indicating that stress can influence students' ability to effectively regulate their learning process.
Regarding the intervention, previous research supports the effectiveness of training programs in reducing academic stress and improving self-regulated learning in university students. 14) The present training program was based on these recommendations and focused on adaptive coping strategies and self-regulated learning techniques, aligning with the existing literature.
However, it is important to consider some differences and limitations between our research and previous investigations. For example, the duration of the training program in our study was relatively short, which may limit the magnitude of the observed effects. 2,14
It is important to take into account the specific characteristics of the sample used in our study. The participating students were selected from a specific university population, which means that the results may not be generalizable to other student populations. Different educational contexts, levels of stress, and individual characteristics can influence the outcomes of training programs. 15
The findings of this study support the relevance of training programs in university students to address academic stress and improve self-regulated learning. However, further research is needed to gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms, evaluate the long-term effectiveness of training programs, and examine the generalizability of the results to diverse contexts and student populations. These on going efforts will help strengthen and expand knowledge on effectively addressing academic stress and promoting better performance and well-being in university students.
Conclusions
The findings of this study support the effectiveness of a self-regulated learning training program based on a neuropsychological approach in addressing academic stress in university students. The results demonstrate that this type of program can reduce stress and improve academic performance. Awareness of one's learning strategies and the ability to self-regulate are key aspects of managing academic stress, and this program provided students with the necessary tools to improve in these areas.
The utilization of both quantitative and qualitative approaches in the study methodology provided a comprehensive perspective of the results, supporting the validity and reliability of the findings obtained. The integration of the neuropsychological perspective in training programs can help students understand how stress affects their brains and utilize neuroscience-based strategies to effectively manage academic stress. These findings have important implications for higher education as they suggest that implementing similar programs in other educational institutions can enhance students' academic experience and overall well-being.
